Minorcan
Stories
New Smyrna Archaelology
Explore the fascinating history of the New Smyrna colony, established in 1768 in what is now southeastern Volusia County by Scottish physician Dr. Andrew Turnbull and 1,255 colonists. This colony emerged as one of the largest British colonization efforts in East Florida, rivaling the early settlement of Jamestown. Intended to cultivate cash crops for British economic interests, the endeavor faced numerous challenges and was abandoned after just nine years.
Recent archaeological research has sparked renewed interest in the New Smyrna colony, uncovering remnants that enhance our understanding of this significant historical site. This informative booklet serves as a valuable resource for residents and visitors, providing insights into the colony’s rich past and highlighting exciting archaeological discoveries that illustrate the legacy of this grand yet ultimately failed venture. Discover the hidden heritage that lies beneath modern New Smyrna Beach!
New Smyrna Colony Statement
The New Smyrna enterprise, founded by Dr. Andrew Turnbull in 1768, should be recognized as a full-fledged colony rather than a mere settlement. This distinction is crucial, as it reflects the expansive intent behind the establishment. Official British terminology from the time, which includes references by Governor James Grant deeming it a “Greek colony,” underscores its significance as an organized, state-sanctioned endeavor involving large land grants and systematic population transfers.
Unlike informal settlements, New Smyrna was characterized by a massive scale, incorporating over 1,400 colonists—more than the entire civilian population of St. Augustine at the time. This ambitious agricultural project was meticulously planned, aligning with imperial goals and featuring formal contracts that bound laborers to service. The modern framing of New Smyrna as simply a settlement neglects this historical context and diminishes the impactful legacy of its inhabitants, primarily the Minorcans. By understanding New Smyrna within the broader framework of eighteenth-century colonial enterprises, we can appreciate its importance as one of the most noteworthy colonial projects undertaken in British North America.
A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF ST. AUGUSTINE MINORCANS
Dr. Andrew Turnbull, a Scottish physician and entrepreneur, brought over 1,200 Mediterranean colonists—predominantly Minorcans, along with Italians, Greeks, and Corsicans—to East Florida in 1768 to work as indentured laborers at his New Smyrna Colony, intended to produce indigo for export. The project quickly outgrew expectations and conditions were brutal: nearly 964 Minorcans died during the nine hard years at New Smyrna, and hundreds more later walked roughly 70 miles to nearby St. Augustine after Governor Patrick Tonyn freed them from their contracts. Tonyn’s intervention and the settlement in St. Augustine’s Minorcan Quarter allowed the survivors to preserve much of their culture; Father Pedro Camps, who accompanied the colonists and ministered to them until his death, is remembered as their spiritual leader.
Today the story is commemorated in photographs, murals, and ongoing efforts to locate the unmarked graves at New Smyrna Beach ahead of the 250th anniversary of the Minorcans’ arrival in St. Augustine in 2027, and the community continues to honor its ancestors’ endurance and cultural legacy.
A MINORCAN ODYSSEY
Step aboard a high-stakes journey! Malachi and the Minorcan Odyssey: Beyond Indentured Servitude hurls you into 1784 St. Augustine as Spain reclaims Florida and British forces withdraw. Freed from brutal servitude, Malachi Lamarca and his Minorcan crew set sail for a new life—but their past won’t let go. Enemy ships, shifting loyalties, and a deadly coastline stand between them and freedom. Packed with danger, courage, and heart, this true-to-life odyssey will keep you turning pages to see if Malachi can outwit his foes and finally claim the future he’s fought for.
A Journey From St. Augustine to the New Smyrnea Colony
The thinnest sliver of the morning sun peeked above Matanzas Bay. Within minutes, the orange orb fully appeared signaling the beginning of another day — not just any day, but the day of my journey to New Smyrna, British East Florida. It was September 30, 1770.
After saying prayers, eating a breakfast of smoked mullet and tea, I picked up my saddle bags and headed to the stables on King Street to collect my horse. As I passed the City Gates, British sentries were performing the changing of the guard. Their handsome red-and-white uniforms were neatly pressed, and the bayonets on their muskets gleamed. Razor sharp and deadly, those blades were devastating at close range.
1770 Manuscript
Life in Andrew Turnbull’s New Smyrna colony in 1771 was marked by immense suffering: living in palmetto huts, enduring oppression from overseers, and struggling to survive against relentless hardships. The experiences of the New Smyrna colonists stand as a stark reminder of the human cost of colonial expansion and the exploitation that often accompanied it. Unfortunately, no letters written by the Minorcan colonists describing their conditions have been discovered. The only available written records come from the correspondence of officials connected to East Florida and the New Smyrna colony. Despite this limitation, these accounts offer valuable glimpses into the lives of the Minorcan colonists—lives that remain largely undocumented and unacknowledged.
Minorcan Life at Turnbull’s Colony in 1770
The Turnbull Colony, officially known as New Smyrnea Colony, was established in 1768 in what is now New Smyrna Beach, Florida, under the leadership of Scottish physician and entrepreneur Dr. Andrew Turnbull. By 1770, life in the colony was still harsh and fraught with challenges, but the deaths had greatly subsided. The Minorcans were cultivating indigo, sugarcane, and their own provisions in the sweltering heat of New Smyrna’s subtropical climate. Many had died of scurvy and other illnesses in 1768 due to the 70-day voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. The food supplies were often inadequate, forcing colonists to rely on meager rations. Moreover, Turnbull’s overseers were harsh and exploitative, and the colonists were subjected to near-slavery under their indentured labor contracts, which many later claimed in their depositions, were fraudulent or misleading. Despite these hardships, the Minorcans, Greeks, and Italians clung to their cultural identities, celebrating Mediterranean traditions and maintaining a strong sense of community, which helped them endure the colony’s hardships. Father Camps and Father Casanovas were the guiding lights during the harshest of times, particularly over the previous year and a half, when most of the deaths and burials occurred. Tragically, from the first burial that was held until the last one in 1777, not one grave has ever been found. This lack of gravesites has left an eerie gap in the historical record, serving as a poignant reminder of the suffering endured by the settlers of the Turnbull Colony.
Minorcan Life at Turnbull’s Colony in 1769
From the time the colonists landed in the summer of 1768 until January 1, 1769, three hundred men and one hundred fifty women and children had died and were buried in the soil of what is now New Smyrna Beach, Florida. Antonio Alzina and Juan Andreu were not among the dead and, in all likelihood, knew many of the Minorcans who perished. They, along with the others, would have been struggling to recover both physically and emotionally. It is highly likely that none of the colonists had ever witnessed so many deaths in such a short period of time in their homeland Imagine those men and women who were able to work in the fields: cutting down trees, removing stumps, preparing land for planting indigo, and setting up the process for turning a vile-smelling weed into ‘blue gold.’ “Indigo was known as ‘the devil’s dye’ due to the exploitation and abuse involved in its farming and processing during British rule.” Andrew Turnbull had never grown indigo himself, but he spent time with other planters, learning the process and hiring someone who was knowledgeable about cultivating indigo.
The Minorcans and Dr. Andrew Turnbull Arrive in New Smyrna
The Minorcans referenced in this essay are the 1,403 immigrants who arrived in British East Florida as indentured servants under Dr. Andrew Turnbull in 1768, primarily from the island of Minorca, along with Italians, Greeks, and others. Turnbull, a Scottish physician, established the colony with high hopes but faced significant challenges, including financial difficulties, mismanagement, and a rebellion, leading to the death of half his colonists within a decade. Despite the harsh conditions and high mortality rates in the colony, the Minorcans maintained their cultural identity and played a vital role in the community, with their descendants continuing to influence the social and political landscape of St. Augustine today.
Minorcans and the Carlo Forni Rebellion
The Carlo Forni Rebellion at Turnbull’s New Smyrna colony on August 19, 1768, was a desperate uprising by mistreated Italian and Greek colonists against the harsh conditions and broken promises they faced upon arrival in East Florida. Despite being promised land and fair treatment, the colonists endured brutal labor, food shortages, and oppressive oversight, leading to a swift organization of the rebellion, primarily led by Forni, who rallied his fellow Italians and Greeks in response to their shared grievances. The rebellion ultimately failed, but it highlighted the profound despair and resistance to oppression experienced by the colonists, particularly in light of the biases present in the historical accounts that largely ignored the voices and struggles of the Minorcans.
James Grant
James Grant, Laird of Ballindalloch and the first Governor of East Florida, was a Scottish landowner and military leader whose steadfast loyalty to the British crown defined his career. His tenure as governor was marked by efforts to develop the region through strategic alliances, colonial agriculture, and the support of Mediterranean immigrants, despite facing significant challenges such as financial strain and rebellion.
Frederick George Mulcaster
Frederick George Mulcaster, a Royal Military Academy graduate and deputy surveyor in East Florida, played a significant role in colonial administration during the late 18th century. While his direct involvement with the Minorcan colony was limited to brief visits, his correspondence with Governor James Grant provided detailed observations on colonial challenges, including Dr. Andrew Turnbull’s management of the Minorcans and broader agricultural and political issues. Mulcaster’s letters reflect his dedication to the crown and his pragmatic approach to governance amidst a period of tension and transition in East Florida.
Lieutenant Colonel Thomas “Burntfoot” Brown
Lieutenant Colonel Thomas “Burntfoot” Brown was a prominent Loyalist commander during the American Revolutionary War, known for his brutal tactics and desire for revenge after suffering severe mistreatment at the hands of the Sons of Liberty in 1775. Initially arriving in Georgia as a landowner, his transformation into a ruthless military leader was fueled by the violence he endured, leading him to command the East Florida Rangers and later the King’s Rangers, where he achieved notable victories against Patriot forces. After the war, Brown faced challenges in British territories and ultimately settled in St. Vincent, where he remained loyal to the Crown until his death in 1825.
William Drayton Sr.
William Drayton, Chief Justice of East Florida, was born on his father’s Magnolia Plantation, located on the beautiful Ashley River near Charleston, South Carolina. His father was Thomas Drayton (abt 1700-abt-1769) and Elizabeth (Bull) Drayton (1712-aft-1745). William Drayton would have grown up within the top rung of British society. He would have been around enslaved people beginning as a child and taught from an early age that Black people were different and were best utilized as laborers. When he was born the British slave trade was well-established and highly lucrative. British ships left from Liverpool, Bristol and London loaded with manufactured goods, textiles, firearms and alcohol used to trade for human beings held captive by African rulers or slave traders. The enslaved men, women and children, were chained to each other on the vessel for passage across the Atlantic Ocean, then sold to the highest bidder.
Lieutenant Governor John Moultrie
John Moultrie III was born on January 18, 1729, to John Moultrie and Lucretia Cooper in In 1771, King George III appointed John Moultrie as Lieutenant Governor of East Florida after Governor James Grant returned to England due to ill health and to claim his substantial inheritance. Moultrie continued to serve as Lieutenant Governor under Patrick Tonyn. Like his father, Moultrie was a planter and builder and oversaw the construction of the King’s Road, which extended from the St. Marys River to the New Smyrna colony in East Florida. He aligned himself with Governor Tonyn during the bitter feud with Andrew Turnbull and Chief Justice William Drayton. He died on March 19, 1798, in Shiffnal Churchyard, Shropshire, England.
Gracia Maria du Robin
She was born in Smyrna (Izmir), Turkey, in 1736, the daughter of Jean Baptiste Robin and Katerina Jary. Her birth name has sometimes been recorded as “Dura Bin,” which has been identified as an incorrect transcription of “du Robin,” likely due to errors in hearing or recording. Gracia’s family was French Levantine. There was no Greek nation, but Greek culture—going back before Socrates—was spread throughout the Levant and Asia Minor. On August 22, 1753, at the age of 17, she married Dr. Andrew Turnbull, a Scottish physician who was 35 at the time. The wedding took place in Smyrna. Together, they had 12 children—nine born in Turkey and three likely born at the New Smyrna colony in East Florida. Gracia left the high society of London to join her husband in St. Augustine, Florida, where she lived for a few years before moving to the New Smyrna colony with her children. This relocation meant leaving behind friends and the community she had established in St. Augustine. Despite the challenges, she was a strong and resilient woman who remained devoted to her husband throughout his life. Gracia and Andrew Turnbull are both buried in Charleston, South Carolina.
Governor Patrick Tonyn
Tonyn has often been unfairly blamed for the failure of the New Smyrna colony by writers sympathetic to Dr. Andrew Turnbull, who, with his financial backers, founded the ill-fated colony. These critics argue that Tonyn’s leadership hastened the colony’s demise, but this assessment overlooks the grim realities that preceded Tonyn’s arrival. By the time he assumed office in 1774, the New Smyrna colony had already endured six grueling years of hardship. The colonists had suffered through a devastating rebellion, hurricanes that obliterated most of the palmetto huts, a lack of food and clothing, and certain years of poor indigo yields—the crop that was supposed to provide the colony’s economic foundation. Worst of all, nearly 700 colonists had tragically died since their arrival in 1768. Their graves are now hidden somewhere beneath the soil of New Smyrna Beach, Florida, the land that was once the Turnbull colony. Governor Patrick Tonyn had nothing to do with these catastrophes.
Turnbull Surname Meaning, History & Origin
Andrew Turnbull, a Scottish physician, established the New Smyrna colony in Florida in 1767, but faced challenges in producing profitable crops, leading to the colony’s decline and eventual abandonment by 1777. The Turnbull surname has a rich history, including a notable tale of a champion named Turnbull who met a gruesome fate at the Battle of Halidon Hill in 1333.
Secrets of Spanish Florida
A Chapter of forgotten history. The first permanent European settlement in the United States was founded in 1565–two generations before the settlements in Jamestown and Plymouth–not by English Protestants, but by the Spanish and a melting pot of people they brought with them from Africa, Italy, Germany, Ireland and even converted Jews, who integrated almost immediately with the indigenous tribes.
Her French and Corsican Ancestry
Descendants of settlers from Mahón, Minorca, journeyed to New Smyrna in British East Florida, becoming known as Minorcans. They constituted the largest group of colonists transported to America during the colonial era. Today, descendants are seeking to locate their burial sites, aiming to reinter them at Tolomato Cemetery in St. Augustine. This effort honors their legacy and highlights their contributions, including reintroducing Catholicism to St. Augustine, underscoring the importance of remembering their role in American history.
The Italians in Colonial Florida
A repertory of Italian families settled in Florida under the Spanish (1513-1762, 1784-1821) and British (1762-1784) regimes by Bruno Roselli%2Foldcity-5b0f4877fa6bcc0037aad0c9.jpg&f=1&nofb=1&ipt=ec74862aab02ef0fa2dce6b70bff754cdcf2963d96e2da7c8a9bb8877e278a6c&ipo=images)
Florida Road Trip – St. Augustine
On this edition of Florida Road Trip, we’re taking a journey to the nation’s oldest permanently settled city, St. Augustine. We visit some of Henry Flagler’s old hotels and see what the colonial period was like for the city. Plus, we learn about the Brave Minorcans from Dr. Darien Andreu at 11:22 of the video. All this and more on this St. Augustine edition of Florida Road Trip.
Gottlieb Mittelberger’s Journey
Gottlieb Mittelberger’s diary on his journey from Holland to Pennsylvania in 1754 is different from the journey of the Minorcans from Mahon to St. Augustine in 1768. However, the miseries he describes on board his vessel could reflect what the Minorcans went through on their voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. It is a good read on history of the time.
Florida in 1821 – A Small but Diverse Population
The new territory of Florida entered the American Union with a population that still represented the core of its colonial population under Spain. Although American settlers would quickly migrate to Florida in search of land – the population rose from 8,000 people to 34,730 in just 10 years – both Pensacola and St. Augustine retained much of their former character.
Spoils of War
The article delves into the historical turbulence of 18th-century Florida, centering on the harrowing saga of the Bonelly family during the Second Spanish Period. Through Antonia Paula Bonelly’s captivity and eventual rescue, it unveils a tapestry of intricate interactions among Native American, Spanish, British, and American factions, against a backdrop of political flux and ever-changing allegiances.
Florida in 1821 – A Small but Diverse Population
The new territory of Florida entered the American Union with a population that still represented the core of its colonial population under Spain. Although American settlers would quickly migrate to Florida in search of land – the population rose from 8,000 people to 34,730 in just 10 years – both Pensacola and St. Augustine retained much of their former character.